Interference Effects on Procedural Memory An Assessment of Problem-Solving Task Performance
Article Sidebar
Published
Dec 14, 2023
Main Article Content
Abstract
Three experiments were conducted assessing interference effects acting on procedural task learning and performance using the Tower of Hanoi puzzle as the target procedural task. Experiment 1 found that participants in the no retroactive interference (RI) group completed the Tower of Hanoi task faster than the RI groups, with no differences between the type of the tactile interference. These results indicate that RI may hinder procedural task performance, but does not differentiate between consolidation and retrieval. Experiment 2 addressed RI placement by manipulating the delay prior to the interference task. Subsequent analyses suggested that interfering with only consolidation or recall does not produce interference effects, but qualitative feedback regarding emotion raised further questions about the effects of affect induction. Experiment 3 attempted to address the influence of a proactive and retroactive affect induction technique, but was unsuccessful in producing a dichotomous happy versus neutral effect. However, it was noted that alertness changed across the task acquisition stage, and the change in alertness may account for enhanced procedural memory acquisition. Overall, the series of experiments conducted provides conceptual replication of some previous research while contradicting other findings. This research not only extends our current understanding but also highlights the need to replicate research and continue to explore factors that may influence the practice or acquisition of novel procedural tasks.
References
Adam, K. C. S., Mance, I., Fukuda, K., & Vogel, E. K. (2015). The contribution of attentional
lapses to individual differences in visual working memory capacity. Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience, 27, 1601–1616. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00811
Aguirre, M., Broughton, R., & Stuss, D. (1985). Does memory impairment exist in narcolepsy-
cataplexy?. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 7(1), 14-24.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01688638508401239
Allen, T. A., & Fortin, N. J. (2013). The evolution of episodic memory. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, 110(supplement_2), 10379-10386.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1301199110
Al-Qazzaz, N. K., Ali, S. H., Ahmad, S. A., Islam, S., & Mohamad, K. (2014). Cognitive
impairment and memory dysfunction after a stroke diagnosis: a post-stroke memory
assessment. Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment, 1677-1691.
https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S67184
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control
Processes. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 2, 89-195.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3
Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory?. Trends in
Cognitive Sciences, 4, 417-423. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working Memory. In G. H. Bower, The psychology of
learning and motivation (pp. 47-89). New York: Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1
Brashers-Krug, T., Shadmehr, R., & Bizzi, E. (1996). Consolidation in human motor memory.
Nature, 382(6588), 252-255. https://doi.org/10.1038/382252a0
Cowan, N. (1999). An Embedded-Processes Model of working memory. In A. Miyake & P. Shah
(Eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive
control (pp. 62-101). Cambridge University Press.
https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1017/CBO9781139174909.006
Cowan, N. (2008). What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working
memory?. Progress in brain research, 169, 323-338.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9
deBettencourt, M. T., Keene, P. A., Awh, E., & Vogel, E. K. (2019). Real-time triggering reveals
concurrent lapses of attention and working memory. Nature human behaviour, 3(8), 808-
816. https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41562-019-0606-6
deBettencourt, M. T., Norman, K. A., & Turk-Browne, N. B. (2018). Forgetting from lapses of
sustained attention. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 25, 605-611.
https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-017-1309-5
Epstein, W. (1972). Mechanisms of directed forgetting. In Psychology of learning and
motivation (Vol. 6, pp. 147-191). Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60386-2
Fitts, P. M. (1964). Perceptual-motor skill learning. In A. W. Melton, Categories of human
learning (pp. 243-285). New York: Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4832-3145-7.50016-9
Friedman, J., & Korman, M. (2016). Offline optimization of the relative timing of movements in
a sequence is blocked by retroactive behavioral interference. Frontiers in Human
Neuroscience, 10, 623. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00623
Gagné, M. H., & Cohen, H. (2016). Interference effects between memory systems in the
acquisition of a skill. Experimental brain research, 234, 2883-2891.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-016-4690-9
Greenberger, E., O'Connor, J., & Sorensen, A. (1971). Personality, cognitive, and academic
correlates of problem-solving flexibility. Developmental Psychology, 4(3), 416.
https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0030964
Gorissen, M., Tielemans, M., & Coenen, A. (1997). Alertness and memory after sleep
deprivation and diazepam intake. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 11(3), 233-239.
https://doi.org/10.1177/026988119701100306
Hirono, N., Mori, E., Ikejiri, Y., Imamura, T., Shimomura, T., Ikeda, M., ... & Yamadori, A.
(1997). Procedural memory in patients with mild Alzheimer's disease. Dementia and
geriatric cognitive disorders, 8(4), 210-216. https://doi.org/10.1159/000106633
Javadi, A. H., Walsh, V., & Lewis, P. A. (2011). Offline consolidation of procedural skill
learning is enhanced by negative emotional content. Experimental brain research, 208,
507-517. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-010-2497-7
Keene, P. A., DeBettencourt, M. T., Awh, E., & Vogel, E. K. (2022). Pupillometry signatures of
sustained attention and working memory. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 84(8),
2472-2482. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-022-02557-5
LaBar, K. S., & Phelps, E. A. (1998). Arousal-mediated memory consolidation: Role of the
medial temporal lobe in humans. Psychological Science, 9(6), 490-493.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00090
Medin, D. L., Reynolds, T. J., & Parkinson, J. K. (1980). Stimulus similarity and retroactive
interference and facilitation in monkey short-term memory. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 6(2), 112.
https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0097-7403.6.2.112
Neigel, A. R., Claypoole, V. L., Waldorf, K. M., Dever, D. A., & Szalma, J. L. (2017,
September). Motivational correlates of vigilance task engagement. In Proceedings of the
Human Factors and Ergonomics Society annual meeting (Vol. 61, No. 1, pp. 1524-1528).
Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1541931213601865
Nuzzo, R. (2015). Fooling ourselves. Nature, 526(7572), 182. https://doi.org/10.1038/526182a
Oken, B. S., Salinsky, M. C., & Elsas, S. (2006). Vigilance, alertness, or sustained attention:
physiological basis and measurement. Clinical neurophysiology, 117(9), 1885-1901.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2006.01.017
Osgood, C. E. (1946). Meaningful similarity and interference in learning. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 36(4), 277. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0063154
Packard, M. G., & Knowlton, B. J. (2002). Learning and memory functions of the basal
ganglia. Annual review of neuroscience, 25(1), 563-593.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142937
Ren, J., Huang, Z., Luo, J., Wei, G., Ying, X., Ding, Z., ... & Luo, F. (2011). Meditation
promotes insightful problem-solving by keeping people in a mindful and alert conscious
state. Science China Life Sciences, 54, 961-965.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11427-011-4233-3
Ross, J. A., & Van Bockstaele, E. J. (2021). The locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system in stress
and arousal: Unraveling historical, current, and future perspectives. Frontiers in
PsychiaTRY, 11, 601519. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.601519
Shapiro, C. M., Auch, C., Reimer, M., Kayumov, L., Heslegrave, R., Huterer, N., ... & Devins,
G. M. (2006). A new approach to the construct of alertness. Journal of psychosomatic
research, 60(6), 595-603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2006.04.012
Stodden, V. (2015). Reproducing statistical results. Annual Review of Statistics and Its
Application, 2, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-statistics-010814-020127
Steidl, S., Mohi-Uddin, S., & Anderson, A. K. (2006). Effects of emotional arousal on multiple
memory systems: evidence from declarative and procedural learning. Learning &
Memory, 13(5), 650-658. https://doi.org/10.1101/lm.324406
Squire, L. R. (1986). Mechanisms of memory. Science, 232(4758), 1612-1619.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3086978
Squire, L. R., Knowlton, B., & Musen, G. (1993). The structure and organization of
memory. Annual review of psychology, 44(1), 453-495.
https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.002321
Reyna, V. F. (1995). Interference effects in memory and reasoning: A fuzzy-trace theory
analysis. In Interference and inhibition in cognition (pp. 29-59). Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012208930-5/50003-9
Rigon, A., Klooster, N. B., Crooks, S., & Duff, M. C. (2019). Procedural memory following
moderate severe traumatic brain injury: group performance and individual differences on
the rotary pursuit task. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 13, 251.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00251
Rimmele, U., Davachi, L., Petrov, R., Dougal, S., & Phelps, E. A. (2011). Emotion enhances the
subjective feeling of remembering, despite lower accuracy for contextual details.
Emotion, 11(3), 553. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0024246
Robertson, E. M. (2012). New insights in human memory interference and consolidation.
Current Biology, 22(2), R66-R71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2011.11.051
Robertson, E. M., Pascual-Leone, A., & Miall, R. C. (2004). Current concepts in procedural
consolidation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(7), 576-582.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1426
Rogers, A. E., & Rosenberg, R. S. (1990). Tests of memory in narcoleptics. Sleep, 13(1), 42-52.
https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/13.1.42
Tulving, E. (1999). Episodic vs. semantic memory. The MIT encyclopedia of the cognitive
sciences, 278-280.
Tulving, E., & Markowitsch, H. J. (1998). Episodic and declarative memory: role of the
hippocampus. Hippocampus, 8(3), 198-204.
https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-1063(1998)8:3%3C198::AID-HIPO2%3E3.0.CO;2-G
Van Egroo, M., Koshmanova, E., Vandewalle, G., & Jacobs, H. I. (2022). Importance of the
locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system in sleep-wake regulation: Implications for aging
and Alzheimer's disease. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 62, 101592.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2022.101592
Vakil, E., & Held, E. (2016). The effect of constant versus varied training on transfer in a
cognitive skill learning task: The case of the Tower of Hanoi. Learning and Individual
Differences, 47, 207-214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.02.009
Ward, H., Shum, D., Wallace, G., & Boon, J. (2002). Pediatric traumatic brain injury and
procedural memory. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 24(4), 458-
470. https://doi.org/10.1076/jcen.24.4.458.1032
Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1994). The PANAS-X: Manual for the positive and negative affect
schedule-expanded form. https://doi.org/10.17077/48vt-m4t2
Weinreich, A., Strobach, T., & Schubert, T. (2015). Expertise in video game playing is
associated with reduced valence‐concordant emotional expressivity. Psychophysiology,
52(1), 59-66. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12298
Whitt, C. M., Miranda, J. F., & Tullett, A. M. (2022). History of Replication Failures in
Psychology. In Avoiding Questionable Research Practices in Applied Psychology (pp.
73-97). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04968-2_4
Wickelgren, W. A. (1965). Acoustic similarity and retroactive interference in short-term
memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 4(1), 53-61.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(65)80067-6
Wohldmann, E. L., Healy, A. F., & Bourne Jr., L. E. (2008). A Mental Practice Superiority
Effect: Less Retroactive Interference and More Transfer Than Physical Practice. Journal
of Experimental Psychology, 34, 823-833. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.34.4.823
Yang, H., Yang, S., & Isen, A. M. (2013). Positive affect improves working memory:
Implications for controlled cognitive processing. Cognition and Emotion, 27, 474-482.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.713325
Zhang, X., Yu, H. W., & Barrett, L. F. (2014). How does this make you feel? A comparison of
four affect induction procedures. Frontiers in psychology, 5, 689.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00689
lapses to individual differences in visual working memory capacity. Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience, 27, 1601–1616. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00811
Aguirre, M., Broughton, R., & Stuss, D. (1985). Does memory impairment exist in narcolepsy-
cataplexy?. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 7(1), 14-24.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01688638508401239
Allen, T. A., & Fortin, N. J. (2013). The evolution of episodic memory. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, 110(supplement_2), 10379-10386.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1301199110
Al-Qazzaz, N. K., Ali, S. H., Ahmad, S. A., Islam, S., & Mohamad, K. (2014). Cognitive
impairment and memory dysfunction after a stroke diagnosis: a post-stroke memory
assessment. Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment, 1677-1691.
https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S67184
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control
Processes. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 2, 89-195.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3
Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory?. Trends in
Cognitive Sciences, 4, 417-423. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working Memory. In G. H. Bower, The psychology of
learning and motivation (pp. 47-89). New York: Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1
Brashers-Krug, T., Shadmehr, R., & Bizzi, E. (1996). Consolidation in human motor memory.
Nature, 382(6588), 252-255. https://doi.org/10.1038/382252a0
Cowan, N. (1999). An Embedded-Processes Model of working memory. In A. Miyake & P. Shah
(Eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive
control (pp. 62-101). Cambridge University Press.
https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1017/CBO9781139174909.006
Cowan, N. (2008). What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working
memory?. Progress in brain research, 169, 323-338.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9
deBettencourt, M. T., Keene, P. A., Awh, E., & Vogel, E. K. (2019). Real-time triggering reveals
concurrent lapses of attention and working memory. Nature human behaviour, 3(8), 808-
816. https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41562-019-0606-6
deBettencourt, M. T., Norman, K. A., & Turk-Browne, N. B. (2018). Forgetting from lapses of
sustained attention. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 25, 605-611.
https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-017-1309-5
Epstein, W. (1972). Mechanisms of directed forgetting. In Psychology of learning and
motivation (Vol. 6, pp. 147-191). Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60386-2
Fitts, P. M. (1964). Perceptual-motor skill learning. In A. W. Melton, Categories of human
learning (pp. 243-285). New York: Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4832-3145-7.50016-9
Friedman, J., & Korman, M. (2016). Offline optimization of the relative timing of movements in
a sequence is blocked by retroactive behavioral interference. Frontiers in Human
Neuroscience, 10, 623. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00623
Gagné, M. H., & Cohen, H. (2016). Interference effects between memory systems in the
acquisition of a skill. Experimental brain research, 234, 2883-2891.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-016-4690-9
Greenberger, E., O'Connor, J., & Sorensen, A. (1971). Personality, cognitive, and academic
correlates of problem-solving flexibility. Developmental Psychology, 4(3), 416.
https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0030964
Gorissen, M., Tielemans, M., & Coenen, A. (1997). Alertness and memory after sleep
deprivation and diazepam intake. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 11(3), 233-239.
https://doi.org/10.1177/026988119701100306
Hirono, N., Mori, E., Ikejiri, Y., Imamura, T., Shimomura, T., Ikeda, M., ... & Yamadori, A.
(1997). Procedural memory in patients with mild Alzheimer's disease. Dementia and
geriatric cognitive disorders, 8(4), 210-216. https://doi.org/10.1159/000106633
Javadi, A. H., Walsh, V., & Lewis, P. A. (2011). Offline consolidation of procedural skill
learning is enhanced by negative emotional content. Experimental brain research, 208,
507-517. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-010-2497-7
Keene, P. A., DeBettencourt, M. T., Awh, E., & Vogel, E. K. (2022). Pupillometry signatures of
sustained attention and working memory. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 84(8),
2472-2482. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-022-02557-5
LaBar, K. S., & Phelps, E. A. (1998). Arousal-mediated memory consolidation: Role of the
medial temporal lobe in humans. Psychological Science, 9(6), 490-493.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00090
Medin, D. L., Reynolds, T. J., & Parkinson, J. K. (1980). Stimulus similarity and retroactive
interference and facilitation in monkey short-term memory. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 6(2), 112.
https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0097-7403.6.2.112
Neigel, A. R., Claypoole, V. L., Waldorf, K. M., Dever, D. A., & Szalma, J. L. (2017,
September). Motivational correlates of vigilance task engagement. In Proceedings of the
Human Factors and Ergonomics Society annual meeting (Vol. 61, No. 1, pp. 1524-1528).
Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1541931213601865
Nuzzo, R. (2015). Fooling ourselves. Nature, 526(7572), 182. https://doi.org/10.1038/526182a
Oken, B. S., Salinsky, M. C., & Elsas, S. (2006). Vigilance, alertness, or sustained attention:
physiological basis and measurement. Clinical neurophysiology, 117(9), 1885-1901.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2006.01.017
Osgood, C. E. (1946). Meaningful similarity and interference in learning. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 36(4), 277. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0063154
Packard, M. G., & Knowlton, B. J. (2002). Learning and memory functions of the basal
ganglia. Annual review of neuroscience, 25(1), 563-593.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142937
Ren, J., Huang, Z., Luo, J., Wei, G., Ying, X., Ding, Z., ... & Luo, F. (2011). Meditation
promotes insightful problem-solving by keeping people in a mindful and alert conscious
state. Science China Life Sciences, 54, 961-965.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11427-011-4233-3
Ross, J. A., & Van Bockstaele, E. J. (2021). The locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system in stress
and arousal: Unraveling historical, current, and future perspectives. Frontiers in
PsychiaTRY, 11, 601519. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.601519
Shapiro, C. M., Auch, C., Reimer, M., Kayumov, L., Heslegrave, R., Huterer, N., ... & Devins,
G. M. (2006). A new approach to the construct of alertness. Journal of psychosomatic
research, 60(6), 595-603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2006.04.012
Stodden, V. (2015). Reproducing statistical results. Annual Review of Statistics and Its
Application, 2, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-statistics-010814-020127
Steidl, S., Mohi-Uddin, S., & Anderson, A. K. (2006). Effects of emotional arousal on multiple
memory systems: evidence from declarative and procedural learning. Learning &
Memory, 13(5), 650-658. https://doi.org/10.1101/lm.324406
Squire, L. R. (1986). Mechanisms of memory. Science, 232(4758), 1612-1619.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3086978
Squire, L. R., Knowlton, B., & Musen, G. (1993). The structure and organization of
memory. Annual review of psychology, 44(1), 453-495.
https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.002321
Reyna, V. F. (1995). Interference effects in memory and reasoning: A fuzzy-trace theory
analysis. In Interference and inhibition in cognition (pp. 29-59). Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012208930-5/50003-9
Rigon, A., Klooster, N. B., Crooks, S., & Duff, M. C. (2019). Procedural memory following
moderate severe traumatic brain injury: group performance and individual differences on
the rotary pursuit task. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 13, 251.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00251
Rimmele, U., Davachi, L., Petrov, R., Dougal, S., & Phelps, E. A. (2011). Emotion enhances the
subjective feeling of remembering, despite lower accuracy for contextual details.
Emotion, 11(3), 553. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0024246
Robertson, E. M. (2012). New insights in human memory interference and consolidation.
Current Biology, 22(2), R66-R71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2011.11.051
Robertson, E. M., Pascual-Leone, A., & Miall, R. C. (2004). Current concepts in procedural
consolidation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(7), 576-582.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1426
Rogers, A. E., & Rosenberg, R. S. (1990). Tests of memory in narcoleptics. Sleep, 13(1), 42-52.
https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/13.1.42
Tulving, E. (1999). Episodic vs. semantic memory. The MIT encyclopedia of the cognitive
sciences, 278-280.
Tulving, E., & Markowitsch, H. J. (1998). Episodic and declarative memory: role of the
hippocampus. Hippocampus, 8(3), 198-204.
https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-1063(1998)8:3%3C198::AID-HIPO2%3E3.0.CO;2-G
Van Egroo, M., Koshmanova, E., Vandewalle, G., & Jacobs, H. I. (2022). Importance of the
locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system in sleep-wake regulation: Implications for aging
and Alzheimer's disease. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 62, 101592.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2022.101592
Vakil, E., & Held, E. (2016). The effect of constant versus varied training on transfer in a
cognitive skill learning task: The case of the Tower of Hanoi. Learning and Individual
Differences, 47, 207-214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.02.009
Ward, H., Shum, D., Wallace, G., & Boon, J. (2002). Pediatric traumatic brain injury and
procedural memory. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 24(4), 458-
470. https://doi.org/10.1076/jcen.24.4.458.1032
Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1994). The PANAS-X: Manual for the positive and negative affect
schedule-expanded form. https://doi.org/10.17077/48vt-m4t2
Weinreich, A., Strobach, T., & Schubert, T. (2015). Expertise in video game playing is
associated with reduced valence‐concordant emotional expressivity. Psychophysiology,
52(1), 59-66. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12298
Whitt, C. M., Miranda, J. F., & Tullett, A. M. (2022). History of Replication Failures in
Psychology. In Avoiding Questionable Research Practices in Applied Psychology (pp.
73-97). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04968-2_4
Wickelgren, W. A. (1965). Acoustic similarity and retroactive interference in short-term
memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 4(1), 53-61.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(65)80067-6
Wohldmann, E. L., Healy, A. F., & Bourne Jr., L. E. (2008). A Mental Practice Superiority
Effect: Less Retroactive Interference and More Transfer Than Physical Practice. Journal
of Experimental Psychology, 34, 823-833. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.34.4.823
Yang, H., Yang, S., & Isen, A. M. (2013). Positive affect improves working memory:
Implications for controlled cognitive processing. Cognition and Emotion, 27, 474-482.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.713325
Zhang, X., Yu, H. W., & Barrett, L. F. (2014). How does this make you feel? A comparison of
four affect induction procedures. Frontiers in psychology, 5, 689.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00689
Article Details
Keywords:
Procedural learning, Interference, Consolidation, Recall, Affect, Tower of Hanoi
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
Birkholz, S., Hessler, E., & Root, M. (2023). Interference Effects on Procedural Memory: An Assessment of Problem-Solving Task Performance. Graduate Student Journal of Psychology, 21. https://doi.org/10.52214/gsjp.v21i.11938